The farther you run, the more the mind dominates.

The only limitations are in your mind, and if you don’t buy into those limitations, you can do so much more than you ever imagined.

True, every runner wants to quit sometimes. By any definition, becoming a successful athlete requires conquering those psychological barriers, whether you’re sucking air during your first jog or gutting it out in the final four miles of a marathon, axiomatically the toughest. When you push beyond the marathon, new obstacles arise, and the necessary mental toughness comes from raising your pain threshold.

—Marshall Ulrich

yond extensive physical conditioning for the mileage, training, and logistical preparation. Although motivations for hitting the trails and roads for any distance over a marathon may vary, you could assume that mental toughness plays a major role in successfully completing ultras. Mental toughness has been defined in the context of team sports and elite athletes but never before investigated with a large population of ultramarathon runners—that is, until now. We sought to understand exactly what mental toughness is in ultramarathon running. In addition to identifying a definition and traits of mentally tough ultrarunners, I (Anna) found my own mental toughness and motivation to register for my first

| Itramarathon running undeniably requires a psychological component beultra and examine running in a whole new way. The following article stems from more than just a master’s thesis; it also stems from a new runner’s journey into understanding ultramarathon running.

Despite many investigations of psychological skills and characteristics in runners and the wealth of knowledge on mental toughness, research has not been conducted linking the two. One definition of mental toughness emerged from a qualitative study by Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton (2002): having the innate or developed psychological advantage to cope better than opponents with demands of sport; additionally, mental toughness involves being more consistent and better than an opponent in determination, focus, confidence, and control under pressure. This frequently cited definition has a strong emphasis on the “psychological edge” over an opponent, or competitor, and a comparison-based focus, which may take a different form in ultramarathon running. This assumes an all-encompassing perspective of ultrarunners, from the back-of-the-pack runners to the top finishers. Understandably, competition is likely a high priority for many runners, but the goal of establishing a definition was to gain a more holistic idea of mental toughness in ultramarathon running.

© 2012 The LongRun Picture Company

In the process of defining mental toughness, we wanted to find the most-cited terms and further examine the relevance and variance of competitive aspects. Tim Twietmeyer, who has finished the Western States Endurance Run 25 times, each time in under 24 hours, is quoted as saying: “There is nothing noble in being superior to some other man. The true nobility is being superior to your previous self.” This supports anecdotal evidence that the most challenging competitors that ultramarathon runners face are themselves and the environment.

Ultrarunning is different from most other sports that have been examined in sport psychology due to the extremely long duration of training and competition, the repetitiousness of the activity, and the environmental demands. These factors limit correlations with other sports with the possible exceptions of channel swimming and ultra-endurance triathlons (Baker, Cote, and Deakin 2004; Schumacher 2011).

Ultrarunning differs from many sports in that completion of the event can be considered as much of a success as winning. The sheer vigor and determination it takes to complete an ultramarathon is an important consideration for those who compete in this sport and for those who coach athletes in this sport (Krouse et al. 2011).

Just as it is anew challenge to excel to run an ultra compared with a traditional marathon or to move up from a 50-mile race to 100 miles, researchers must address this new challenge to take the research to the next level as well. Bull (1989) conducted a unique case study of an ultramarathon runner and served as a valuable member of an athlete’s 500-mile journey through some of the most challenging terrain in North America. Bull provided great practical application of a structured psychological-skills training program throughout this runner’s expedition. This shows clear evidence of the importance and value of understanding psychological skills, such as mental toughness, in their role to improve an athlete’s performance and success in completing a task such as an ultramarathon. Sport-psychology consultants can play a powerful role with a greater understanding of what mental toughness is, how it is conceptualized, and what factors warrant more focus.

This research had two objectives: to quantitatively examine a conceptualized definition of mental toughness (Jones, Hanton, and Connaughton 2007) as it relates to ultramarathon running and to further the understanding of the term and traits in a sport-specific context.

Method

Participants were gathered by snowball sampling and social networking and through listservs (perhaps some readers of this article were participants in this study). The sampling methods were utilized with the goal of attaining a diverse sample and avoiding accessing only geographically specific ultramarathon runners. The sample size included 408 ultramarathon runners who completed a survey, of the total

804 surveys (51 percent completion rate). All participants were at least 18 years of age. The central criterion to participate in the study was the completion of at least one ultramarathon event of 50 miles or longer, even though the International Association of Ultrarunners (IUA) defines an ultramarathon event as anything longer than a marathon. The purpose of this study was to obtain perceptions of experienced ultramarathon runners, which excluded runners who had completed only one race or only races at the lower limit of ultrarunning (50 kilometers). This justification was established from an understanding of the ultramarathon running culture, which focuses on races at or longer than 50 miles.

The participants completed a questionnaire developed from Jones and colleagues’ (2007) attributes of mentally tough performers. Ultramarathon runners were asked to describe the extent to which they agreed with descriptive characteristics of mentally tough ultramarathon runners on a five-point Likert scale. Prior to the survey, participants were asked an open-ended question as to how they would define mental toughness in the context of their ultramarathon running participation. This question provided 476 definitions of mental toughness and a wealth of themes to help establish a central definition, characteristics of mentally tough ultramarathon runners, and what mental toughness can allow an ultrarunner to do. The 476 definitions were drawn from the total sample of 804; thus, some ultrarunners completed this question but not every other question on the survey. We felt it necessary to include all definitions submitted for this question.

Results

Online Survey The objective of this study was to test the applicability of an existing definition and a list of 30 characteristics of mental toughness. The definition was derived from a qualitative investigation of elite athletes, coaches, and sport psychologists (Jones et al. 2007). The online survey also provided the opportunity to ask a large sample of runners how they would define mental toughness in the context of ultramarathon running. Demographic statistics are presented in table 1. The runners were asked to describe their ultramarathon running participation on a continuum ranging from very recreational to very competitive. Most runners identified their participation as “somewhere in between” (38.2 percent). However, a bell curve emerged, with 25.8 percent of runners describing themselves as competitive, 24.7 percent as recreational, 5.8 percent as very recreational, and 5.6 percent as very competitive. The participants were asked to what extent they agreed with the characteristics of mentally tough ultramarathon runners on a five-point Likert scale. Table 2 includes all of the characteristics, their category, and mean rankings to show importance based on phases from the list of attributes: attitude/mind-set, training, competition/racing, and postcompetition. A mean closer to 5 indicated more

Table 1: Descriptions of ultramarathon runners: overall demographic variables

N % N % Sex Education Male 321 68.6 High School 8 17 Female 146 «31.2 Some College 61 «13 Missing 1 0.2 College Degree 142 303

Some Graduate School 42 9

Ages Graduate Degree 150 32.1 18-24 14 2.99 Doctoral Degree 65 «13.9 25-39 178 38.03 Missing 0 0 40-59 227 48.5 60-69 24 5.13 70+ 4 0.85 Missing 21 45 Ethnicity Participation Description American Indian 4 0.9 Very Recreational 27 5.8 Asian/Asian Amer 16 3.4 Recreational 115 24.6 Black/African Amer 1 0.2 Somewhere in Between 178 38 Hispanic/Latino 5 11 Competitive 120 25.6 Caucasian/White 432 92.3 Very Competitive 26 5.6 Other 10 2.1 Missing 2 04 TOTAL 468 100 TOTAL 468 100

agreement with the characteristics. Those closest to the bottom of the list were agreed with the least. The top three traits were:

1. The ability to use failure to drive themselves to further success.

2. When training becomes physically and mentally tough due to obstacles, they keep themselves going by reminding themselves of their goals and

aspirations and why they are putting themselves through this.

3. The ability to recognize and rationalize failure and pick out the learning points to take forward.

The lowest three traits were:

1, Aninner arrogance that makes them believe that they can achieve anything they set their mind to.

2. Thrive on opportunities to beat other people in training.

3. Belief that achievement of their running goals is the number one priority in their life.

In examining the Jones and colleagues’ (2007) attributes of mental toughness, it is clear that a new list of characteristics should be developed that is more closely relevant to ultramarathon running. The next phase of this research project allowed for both a definition and a list of traits to be developed.

Table 2: Ranked characteristics of mental toughness from strongly agree (5) to strongly disagree (1)

Standard Question Category Mean Deviation The ability to use failure to drive Postcompetition 4.30 0.65 themselves to further success. When training becomes physically Training 4.26 0.754 and mentally tough due to obstacles, they keep themselves going by reminding themselves of their goals and aspirations and why they are putting themselves through this. The ability to recognize and Postcompetition 4.26 0.64

rationalize failure and pick out the learning points to take forward.

Adapt to and cope with any change/ Competition/Racing 4.23 0.656 distraction/threat under pressure.

Are not fazed by making mistakes Competition/Racing 4.20 0.767 and can come back from them.

Have the patience, discipline, and Training 4.19 0.799 self-control with the required training

for each developmental stage to allow

themselves to reach their full potential.

The belief that they can push through Attitude/Mind-set 4.17 0.88 any obstacle put in their way.

The ability to remain focused on Competition/Racing 4.17 0.708 processes and not only on the outcome.

The ability to use all aspects of a very Training 4.16 0.766 difficult training environment to their

advantage.

Can cope with and channel anxiety in Competition/Racing 4.14 0.678

pressure situations.

Table 2: Continued

Standard Question Category Mean Deviation The ability to know when to celebrate Postcompetition 4.05 0.784 success and then to stop and focus on the next challenge. Total focus on the current Competition/Racing 4.04 0.777 ultramarathon event in the face of distraction. The ability to rationally handle success. Postcompetition 4.03 0.784 Raise their performance “up a gear” Competition/Racing 4.01 0.792 when it matters most. The belief that their desire or hunger Attitude/Mind-set 3.98 0.943 will ultimately result in fulfilling their potential. The ability to remain in control and Attitude/Mind-set 3.93 0.818 not controlled. The ability to remain committed to a Competition/Racing 3.90 0.837 self-absorbed focus despite external distractions. The ability to use all aspects of a very Competition/Racing 3.86 0.806

difficult competition environment to their advantage.

Acute awareness of any inappropriate Competition/Racing 3.85 0.898 thoughts and feelings and change them to help perform optimally.

Have total commitment to their Competition/Racing 3.85 0.862 performance goal until every possible opportunity of success has passed.

An unshakable self-belief and total Attitude/Mind-set 3.82 0.919 awareness of how they got to where they are now.

Can make the correct decisions and Competition/Racing 3.82 0.812 choose the right options that secure

optimal performance under conditions

of extreme pressure and ambiguity.

Have a love for the aspects of training Training 3.71 1.11 that hurt.

Table 2: Continued

Standard Question Category Mean Deviation Refusal to be swayed by short-term Attitude/Mind-set 3.57 0.922 gains (financial, performance) that will jeopardize the achievement of long-term goals. Recognition of the importance of Attitude/Mind-set 3.34 1.044 knowing when to switch on and off from ultramarathon running. Love the pressure of competition. Competition/Racing 3.27 0.966 Possess a killer instinct to capitalize Competition/Racing 3.24 1.026 on the moment when they know they can win. An inner arrogance that makes them Attitude/Mind-set 3.19 1.253 believe that they can achieve anything they set their mind to. Thrive on opportunities to beat other Training 2.40 1.068 people in training. Belief that achievement of their Attitude/Mind-set 2.37 0.971

running goals is the number one priority in their life.

Online Survey Data: Defining Mental Toughness

There were 476 ultramarathoners (of the 804 total surveys) who answered the question: The existing research on mental toughness has revealed many different definitions of mental toughness. How would you define mental toughness as it pertains to your ultramarathon running participation? Feel free to provide examples. The goal was to develop a conceptualized definition of mental toughness that is most relevant to ultramarathon runners. Additionally, these data also provided traits of mental toughness in ultrarunning. The major themes and categories are shown in table 3 (the number in parenthesis indicates the number of times that theme emerged). The UMR number in the examples of each theme refers to the ultramarathon running participant number when definitions were listed in alphabetical order by definition. The excerpts, or sections of definitions, are provided as examples of each factor. Many definitions encompassed multiple aspects that fell into more than one category, such as:

¢ Mental toughness is the ability to transcend physical pain as well as environmental adversity while working through varying strengths and

Table 3: Qualitative data from coding process of definitions of mental

toughness.

Themes

Categories

Exceeding perceived physical limitations (79) Pain: overcoming/enduring/embracing (56) Keep going/moving forward relentlessly (42) Overcoming/ignoring perceived physical and mental limitations (27)

Persevering through most challenging (25) Not stopping/not quitting (25)

Finishing (25)

General persistence (17)

Perseverance toward a goal (14)

No DNF (5)

Persistence and perseverance

Emotional/mental control (40) Focus (33)

Running smart (26)

Goal pursuit (25) Confidence/self-belief (15) Self talk/mantras (14) Positive outlook/attitude (10) Dissociation (9)

Presence (8) Awareness/perspective (7) Drive/motivation (6)

Patience (2)

Relaxation (2)

Flow (2)

Psychological skills

Physical training/conditioning (22) ime/duration (21)

Adverse conditions/conquering course (19) Mental training (9)

Social aspect/competition (7)

Logistical planning (5)

Loop race (2)

External/Environmental factors and preparation

Achieving the impossible/thought incapable (17) Not MT (7) A requirement (6) MT in UMR/life (3) Quitting is harder than enduring the pain (2)

Other

weaknesses en route to obtain a goal. Often times, it takes creativity and utilization of both your body and resources to continue toward that goal. (UMR 243)

Persistence/Perseverance was mentioned the most by far and was a central component in about 50 percent of total responses. Within that category, themes involved exceeding perceived physical and mental limitations, persisting through challenges, references to pain, relentless forward motion, never quitting, and finishing.

The first theme, Exceeding perceived physical limitations, came up by far the most frequently in the definitions as a whole. This theme can be defined as an element of mental toughness that is related to overcoming perceived physical limitations, including fatigue. Many participants simply talked about going beyond, pushing through, or exceeding limitations. However, limitations must be perceived if the participant is able to overcome them.

¢ …Mental toughness in this sport relates to pushing through mental and physical fatigue. (UMR 104) ¢ The ability to will oneself after complete physical exertion has taken over.

To make your body keep running while wanting nothing more than to curl in a ball and sleep. (UMR 424)

The second theme included references to pain. This included enduring, overcoming, and embracing pain. Runners also referred to the importance of identifying “injury pain” versus “regular pain.” It is important to note that regular pain in this context could be identified as extreme fatigue.

¢ Mental toughness is pushing through incredible pain and fatigue because quitting hurts more. (UMR 105)

¢ Being able to control, celebrate, and embrace pain as a welcomed reality of life. (UMR 50)

Many participants talked about continuing to run no matter what and described mental toughness as the ability to Keep going and have relentless forward progress.

¢ Mental toughness is the ability to keep on moving forward no matter what. (UMR 239)

¢ Just keep moving even when you are tired and way behind everyone. (UMR 176)

The fourth theme is in reference to participants who defined mental toughness as the ability to overcome both mental and physical limitations or ignore signals from the mind or body or both to stop. This was grounded in the data as a step beyond exceeding perceived physical limitations, encompassing mental limitations (to a higher degree than mental fatigue). Additionally, many participants

said mental toughness allowed them to ignore messages from both their mind and their body telling them to stop or to quit.

¢ The ability to keep pushing when your mind and body have teamed up to convince you that you should quit. (UMR 383)

¢ Mental toughness is the ability to continue on when every fiber in your body is screaming “STOP!” but your spirit enables you to fight through the pain and finish what you started. (UMR 226)

Mental toughness was defined as the ability to persevere or push through the most challenging parts of the race. These themes were chosen from references to overcoming environmental adversity, which is discussed under the environmental /external factors category.

¢ Mental toughness is the ability to persevere through the most challenging parts of a race. (UMR 1)

° Welcome the challenges of extreme physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual duress that will occur in the course of running 100 miles. (UMR 467)

The fifth theme in the definitions that emerged was that mental toughness in ultrarunning means not or never stopping, quitting, or giving up.

¢ Mental toughness is being able to continue running without stopping or quitting. (UMR 209) ¢ Never quitting no matter how tough it gets. (UMR 279)

Participants cited the ability to simply finish an ultramarathon as a major component of mental toughness.

e …Need to want to finish more than life itself! (UMR 315)

¢ The ability to press on and finish without succumbing to exhaustion or the desire to quit. I’ve always finished an ultra no matter how tired. (UMR 402)

Additional references to persistence, perseverance, consistency, and stubbornness were found in the definitions of mental toughness. These characteristics were not as congruent with the other themes but were grounded in the same general category.

¢ … You persevere. It’s the same thing that pushes winners across the finish line first, and the back o’ the packers under the cutoff. (UMR 325)

¢ Combination of above-average perseverance/tenacity/stubbornness… (UMR 55)

Within the category of persistence and perseverance, the theme of persevering toward a goal emerged. It was important to distinguish this from the psychological skill of goal-setting, as the stronger concept here was the persistence and determination to reach the goal in the given ultramarathon running event. The ability to relentlessly pursue this goal was the action in describing how mental toughness was defined.

¢ It is the ability to persevere through tolerable suffering to achieve your goals. (UMR 69)

¢ Pushing through extreme pain and adversity and doing anything it takes to reach your goal. (UMR 308)

The final category under Persistence/Perseverance is the theme of No DNF, which stands for “did not finish.” Runners cited the importance of never “DNF-ing.”

e 20 100-mile race starts, and 20 finishes. No DNF, aka Did Not Finish. Very unusual ratio. For an accomplished runner to attempt this distance, the question is not “Can I’? The right question is “Will I’? (UMR 3)

¢ Mental toughness comes down to two main areas: can you keep moving when something hurts—when it hits you how stupid it is to run for another 10 hours, do you have what it takes to understand that the pain of DNF is much worse than the pain of the next 10 hours? (UMR, 196)

Psychological skills in the context of this study are strategies, methods, mind-sets, or attitudes described as components of mental toughness in ultramarathon runners. Within this category, 14 themes emerged that were associated with various psychological and emotional contexts. The first and most frequent theme involved the ability to maintain or employ emotional or mental control. This was cited as a vital aspect in ultrarunning in a variety of scenarios.

° Keeping an even keel, regardless of the circumstances. (UMR 182)

¢ Mental toughness regarding ultramarathon running is learning how to control where your thoughts and mind go. (UMR 259)

The next theme that emerged from defining mental toughness in ultramarathon running was focus. This encompassed the ability to focus on goals and to concentrate on psychological/emotional aspects. Focus as a component of mental toughness also involved paying attention to logistics such as nutrition, hydration, terrain, and trail markings.

¢ The ability to maintain mental focus on your running goals while enduring discomfort. (UMR 390)

¢ Ability to completely focus on running, hydration, and nutrition. (UMR 7?

Participants defined mental toughness as being able to properly identify “regular” pain versus injury pain and to tune in to their body to address needs related to ultrarunning performance. These attributes were grouped under the theme of running smart.

¢ A degree of intelligence/acuity to realize how much to NOT push it, so the toughness to exercise some restraint as well. (UMR 321)

¢ Mental toughness in ultras, for me, starts with tuning in to my body. Constantly monitoring what it needs. Backing off whenever the pace borders on unsustainable. Thinking about how to stay happy and healthy to the next aid station and letting the miles pass without getting anxious or pushing myself beyond my limits. I certainly have a tenacity or ability to adjust to present circumstances on the trail. (UMR 118)

Pursuit of a goal or utilization of goal-setting was another theme identified as a means of achieving mental toughness, describing what a mentally tough runner does or an aspect of mental toughness. This theme was described separately from persisting to and persevering toward a goal from the previous category because the main action here is setting or achieving a goal rather than the journey of not allowing anything to prevent attainment of that goal.

¢ I think it is dedication to stick to one’s goals. (UMR 138)

¢ Reassessing the situation and setting new goals without accepting defeat, such as just finishing or staying in top five or 10 when the podium evades, etc. (UMR 82)

Definitions of mental toughness included themes of confidence and belief in selflone’s capabilities. This also included references to self-efficacy.

¢ It’s the ability to KNOW that you can when you think you can’t. (UMR 237) ¢ The ability of an individual’s will or spirit to convince their rational mind that obstacles and impediments that may on first appearance be beyond

their ability to overcome are, in fact, within their ability to overcome. (UMR 346)

Participants mentioned the importance of self-talk or utilizing mantras as an aspect of being a mentally tough ultramarathon runner.

¢ You continually tell yourself this is what I came here today to do, and you just do it. There are many internal dialogues going on in your head! (UMR 87)

¢ Not stopping, even when inside voices say, this is stupid, why do you do this, you won’t make it, you’re slow, this is taking too long, why don’t you just enjoy your life. Telling those inner voices to be quiet. Using

© 2011 The LongRun Picture Company

mantras effectively, like, hills are my friend, I can do it and I will do it, I am strong, light, free. (UMR 286)

A disposition-based theme that arose in the data was positive outlook and attitude as an important component of mental toughness in ultramarathon running.

The ability to roll with the changes and keep a positive attitude. (UMR 374)

More generally, mental toughness is about finding the positive framings that will keep the experience enjoyable in spite of the factual elements that could be easily interpreted as misery. (UMR 29)

Mental toughness was defined as including the ability to block out distractions, keep the mind occupied, or dissociate during a race or training run. This can include blocking out physical pain or mental fatigue or otherwise keeping the mind engaged through these ultra-duration events.

My mental toughness comes from my ability to block out negative thoughts through distraction. Running for hours on end is immensely physically stressful, and if I start thinking about how it hurts (outside of acute pain that needs immediate attention), I’m likely to give up. So I focus on my breathing or heart rate, or look around at the scenery, or start doing math in my head to figure out how far it is to the next aid station, or how soon I

need to take in more calories, or what kind of overall pace I’m on. (UMR 275)

Participants found the idea of being present or having diligent presence as an important theme of mental toughness in ultramarathon running.

¢ It’s abit like trying to tune into the effort on a different level—look around, take in the sights, sounds, and smells of the environment and forget the mechanical business of running. (UMR 47)

¢ Staying in the moment and solving whatever challenge is before you. (UMR 420)

While similar to the previous theme, awareness and perspective were distinct themes talking about a more philosophical approach to defining mental toughness through the lens of an ultrarunner.

¢ Incredible self-awareness, body awareness, ego-less . . . 1 am detached but highly aware. In each independent moment, you have an awareness and ability to make a choice or adjustment. (UMR 323)

¢ The ability to back out of the moment and see the larger picture, including the mental and physical cycles through which I will travel while running and the fact that my current feeling is just one spot in a cycle. Thus, if it hurts, it will get better. If it feels good, remember this, because it will hurt soon enough. And at the end, I will wish I could be back at the beginning. (UMR 349)

One of the smaller themes that was important to note within the definitions of mental toughness was drive or motivation.

¢ Having the drive to see out the challenge—regardless. (UMR 98)

¢ Mental toughness is extremely important for motivating the training (getting out there) and suffering on race day. (UMR 174)

Even though it was mentioned only twice in all of the definitions, the theme of patience can supplement the time and duration factor mentioned in external factors in the third main category of themes. The concept of patience in regard to mental toughness can be a unique aspect to ultrarunning.

¢ Races of all distances require mental toughness. For me, the mile run on a track can require more toughness (willingness to maintain or increase the level of physical exertion in the face of acute pain) than an ultra race. The difference in an ultra is that more patience is required and of course the pain, while not quite as intense, is experienced over a longer time period. (UMR 317)

Another infrequent, yet important, theme was that of relaxation or a sense of calm as a psychological skill that could be important to mentally tough ultrarunners.

¢ Able to relax and work toward accomplishing the task, without too much stress, when presented with a challenge. (UMR 23)

The final theme under psychological skills in defining mental toughness in ultramarathon running is attainment of a flow state.

¢ Finding the “flow.” It feels effortless and soothing. You embrace the pain as part of and an enhancement of the experience. You keep the perspective that you are lucky to be able to complete this event and many others are not, so under no circumstances do you let yourself feel miserable or that you want it to be over. You acknowledge any perceived discomfort and know it will pass and most of it is in the mind. I could go on and on… . (UMR 83)

External, environmental, and preparation factors were grouped into a central category to encompass physical training and mental conditioning, adverse or unique trail or event conditions, and social aspects including both support and competition. The first theme under the category of preparation is having the discipline to do the conditioning and training necessary for the sport. Runners stated that mental toughness meant putting in the time on conditioning to be ready on race day.

¢ Training in every kind of element thrown at me. (UMR 307)

¢ To me, mental toughness is both the ability to get up every morning and train and the attitude of never quitting. (UMR 439)

Specific to ultra-endurance sport, time and duration of physical activity is a major theme. Many definitions of mental toughness in ultrarunning touched on the ability to remain determined and to utilize psychological skills for extremely long durations of time.

¢ Mental toughness boils down to the ability to deal with the length of the race. (UMR 195)

¢ Mental toughness in ultras is really determined in 100-mile or 24 (hour) events. Daylight events do not tax the system and demand the same level of toughness that being alone at night requires. (UMR 206)

Most ultraraces involve a significant amount of trail running, mountainous terrain, water crossings, wildlife, unexpected weather conditions, rapid temperature changes, and difficult-to-navigate routes. Another consideration is that the races are over many miles and with few participants; much of racing (and especially training) is done alone. Conquering adverse conditions of the course was cited as a theme in defining mental toughness in ultrarunning.

¢ Mental toughness—not letting anything break you down, whether it’s an environmental factor or internal factor. Things like rain, snow, wind, fog, water crossings, rocky terrain, mountain lion sightings, (or mountain sightings . . . ha ha) are examples of environmental factors that help to exercise mental toughness! (UMR 193)

¢ The ability to keep going when you are alone on the trails. (UMR 376)

In additional to physical training, mental preparation was a theme in defining mental toughness. This included utilizing psychological skills or mental training prior to an ultrarace or event.

¢ Mental preparedness is a term I use, where in preparing for a race you go through in your mind how difficult the run will be and how bad you may feel and to remind yourself that it will pass. I do this on my training runs, or sitting in my car or anywhere, just going over in my head how I will overcome any obstacle in the race. (UMR 191)

¢ My ability to ensure that my mental toughness is as prepared or more prepared than my physical fitness to achieve any/all goals I plan for myself. Training my mind, my thoughts, and my actions to understand that I will accomplish the task at hand. (UMR 274)

Unlike many other sports, the comparison/competition factor is not quite as strong due to the nature of ultrarunning. However, in reference to mental toughness, ultrarunners cited competition or passing an opponent and/or social support as themes in defining this construct.

¢ Isurround myself with ultrarunners who harbor views regarding distance and provide me with new perspective. (UMR 122)

¢ It enables you to catch—and pass—another competitor when your body wants to “just let him go.” (UMR 226)

Similar to the theme of running smart in the psychological-skills category, mental toughness in ultrarunning also includes smart preparation and Jogistical planning; based on participant responses, being mentally tough means going in ready for the race.

¢ The ability to plan for, train for, and complete an ultramarathon; each segment brings about different levels of mental toughness. The planning and training should prepare one’s mental toughness. Without the planning and training, most do not have the mental toughness to complete the race. (UMR 401)

The final theme under the environmental and external-factors category includes the ability to complete /oop races, which is another aspect that is unique to ultrarunning. Mental toughness can be defined as being able to endure ultradistances in loops ranging from a quarter-mile track (in charity events or 24- or 48-hour challenges) up to 20-mile loops. It can be mentally taxing to pass the finish line over and over again.

¢ This is especially true in races where it would be easy to quit due to the circumstances such as a looped course where you pass a logical stopping point many times. A local event is on a one-mile loop and is run for a specified length of time (nine hours, 11 minutes); it is very easy to stop during that event. (UMR 240)

The last category, titled Other, includes relevant themes that did not fit into the three aforementioned categories. These themes came up repeatedly and were important to note as aspects in defining mental toughness in ultramarathon running.

The first theme is that a component of mental toughness is the ability to achieve what was perceived as impossible or a goal or distance that was previously considered unattainable.

¢ Knowing that nothing is impossible if you really believe and strive to make it happen. (UMR 343)

One of the most interesting themes that emerged was runners who stated that they did not know what mental toughness was, did not think they had it, or that it did not play a large role in ultramarathon running.

¢ I don’t feel as though I rely on mental toughness to get through an ultramarathon. I enjoy getting out and pushing through for the fun of it. I like feeling tired and the feeling of having accomplished something most people don’t even want to try. (UMR 116)

¢ Regarding mental toughness and ultramarathons, personally, an ultra is not the toughest thing I’ve ever done. (UMR 318)

On the contrary, some participants said mental toughness in ultrarunning was simply a requirement or absolutely necessary. ¢ Mental toughness is not an option in ultrarunning; you have to have it no

matter what. (UMR 214)

The final theme under the Other category was references to defining mental toughness in ultras as similar to mental toughness in life. This was defined as mental toughness in life allowing one to be a mentally tough runner or the mentaltoughness aspect of ultrarunning allowing a participant to be tough in life as well.

¢ I personally have found through ultras that I am a “mentally tough” individual, and it has given me great confidence in other areas of my life.

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At times when things seem really hard, I can think of a moment in a race when all things were going bad but I was able to keep moving forward. (UMR 454)

Qualitative analysis of the themes afforded the emergence of a definition of mental toughness in ultramarathon running. It was vital to include the aspects that received the most support: persistence, pushing through perceived physical and psychological limitations, enduring pain or extreme fatigue, utilizing psychological skills, pursuing a goal, running smart, having focus, having a strong physical background, and enduring a multitude of factors for a long duration of time. Supplements were added that included what mental toughness allows an ultramarathon runner to do. The final definition was: mental toughness in ultramarathon running is the ability to persist and utilize mental skills to overcome perceived physical, psychological, emotional, and environmental obstacles in relentless pursuit of a goal. This was supplemented by: (1) mental toughness in ultrarunning also allows a runner to overcome perceived physical and mental fatigue, especially in the most challenging parts of training and competition; and (2) mental toughness involves maintaining emotional control and self-talk to combat negative thinking and remain positive, to focus on association/dissociation as needed, and to run smart to tune in to the body to prevent injury and address physical needs.

To examine which traits are most important from the Jones and colleagues’ (2007) traits of mental toughness from the quantitative phase, the definitions of mental toughness also provide attributes of the mentally tough ultrarunner. Traits were grouped into two categories: (1) what mental toughness allows an ultrarunner to do, and (2) attributes of the mentally tough ultrarunner. This distinction has been absent in prior mental-toughness literature (Crust 2008). Table 4 shows the selection of traits into individual categories.

Table 4: Traits of mental toughness in ultramarathon running

Mental toughness allows Traits of mentally tough an ultrarunner to: ultrarunners:

Exceed perceived physical limitations/fatigue Persistence

Exceed perceived mental limitations Determination Overcome environmental obstacles Emotional control Keep going/move forward relentlessly Focus/concentration Persevere through challenging moments Body/pain awareness Never quit Goal orientation Finish Confidence

Pursue goals Positive attitude

Run smart Perspective

Keep their mind occupied/focused Drive/motivation Talk positively to themselves Patience

Put in physical conditioning Discipline for training Be mentally prepared Adaptability

Achieve something perceived as impossible Endure the time factor

Achieve the impossible

Discussion of defining “mental toughness” from 476 definitions

The objective of the second research question was to attain a definition of mental toughness from as many ultramarathon runners as possible. This meant including all runners who answered the defining mental toughness question, even those who did not complete every question on the survey. The researchers were aiming for at least 75 to 100 definitions and were ecstatic to have attained 476. All of the definitions were coded based on four broad categories: persistence/ perseverance, psychological skills, environmental/external/preparation factors, and other. Mental-toughness research has proposed individual forms of mental toughness that would be applicable to different types of performances, such as those during finite pressure moments, instances relating to immediate physical danger and, most important, the concept of “endurance” mental toughness related to the rigors of training (Bull et al. 2005; Crust 2008). Many of the definitions encompassed multiple themes; thus, it was pertinent to break down longer definitions into excerpts and to code each theme separately. Multiple coded factors in

each definition represented the multifaceted context of defining mental toughness in ultramarathon running.

The definitions also included specific examples that represented mental toughness. Some examples discussed times in which the ultramarathon runner persisted in finishing despite severe injury or in which the severity was not always realized until after the completion of the event. Other examples discuss overcoming challenges such as getting lost and then fighting time cutoffs.

Above all, themes under persistence were by far the most frequently cited by participants. These included the ability to keep going, never quit, continue running through discomfort, overcome mental and physical fatigue, persevere through adversity, and possess the strength to push through perceived limitations. The next category involved utilization of psychological skills such as goal-setting, self-talk, focus, reduction of negative thinking, and maintenance of confidence by reminding oneself of past successes. The third category was more technically based, including social aspects, environmental considerations, and the logistics of training. The goal when constructing the definition of mental toughness was to include all of the most-cited themes. The challenge was isolating a definition that described what mental toughness is in ultramarathon running, aside from what mental toughness may allow someone to do.

An important consideration for examining the definitions of mental toughness is the idea of perceived limitations, whether they were physical, psychological, and/or environmental (such as the time factor). Participants had many definitions that included excelling beyond limitations or enduring pain to keep going and relentlessly pursuing completion. Limitations are a subjective construct; thus, participants may be referring to going beyond where they thought they could go or what was previously deemed possible. This distinction was not covered in prior research on defining mental toughness.

Another aspect of ultramarathon running that has not been explored in other research is the pain-to-fatigue continuum. Runners talk about pushing through, enduring, overcoming, or even reveling in and embracing pain. Participants may be referring to a point along the continuum closer to extreme fatigue rather than to how others may define pain. Pain could mean an injury or ailment not conducive to appropriate continuation of running.

It was clear in the results that there also existed categories of runners who would continue on and never quit, no matter what. One definition included the words “Death before DNF (did not finish).”” However, the definitions also included the frequent theme of running smart, which included references to tuning in to the body and distinguishing fatigue, or “regular” pain, from injury pain. Even while mental toughness was described as being able to overcome adversity or pain, the difference between dropping out and continuing on can mean not running in another ultra or not running at all for up to six months or permanently,

depending on the damage. While one can view mental toughness as always being a positive construct, Crust (2008) brought to light that being (overly) mentally tough can be detrimental to recovery or to prevention of injury. One study found that mental toughness correlated negatively to adherence in clinical rehab and deduced that very mentally tough athletes may appraise their injury to be less severe (Levy et al. 2006).

Clearly, there are runners who have the “complete at all costs” attitude, who are willing to take the risk, and there are ultramarathon runners who may weigh the pros and cons of a potential DNF in the face of potential injury. One should also consider the mental toughness associated with choosing to DNF; runners talk about how it is harder to quit than to decide to continue, despite extreme fatigue and pain. On the opposite end of the spectrum, there were also participants who identified themselves as not being mentally tough because they enjoy running, feel that they employ other factors aside from mental toughness, or see ultramarathon running as not requiring the most mental toughness compared with other situations.

In the final analysis, one can suggest that in order to attempt and complete an ultramarathon, one has to be, almost by definition, mentally tough. Ultrarunners will define “mental toughness” for themselves and should be recognized for these exceptional performances.

References

Baker, J., J. Cote, and J. Deakin. 2004. Cognitive characteristics of expert, middle of the pack, and back of the pack ultra-endurance triathletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 6(5):551-558.

Bull, S. J. 1989. The role of the sport psychology consultant: a case study of ultra-distance running. The Sport Psychologist 3(3):254-264.

Bull, S. J., C. Shambrook, W. James, and J. Brooks. 2005. Towards an understanding of mental toughness in elite English cricketers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 17(3):209-227.

Crust, L. 2008. A review and conceptual re-examination of mental toughness: implications for future researchers. Personality and Individual Differences 45(7):576-583.

Jones, G., S. Hanton, and D. Connaughton. 2002. What is this thing called mental toughness? An investigation with elite sport performers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology 14(3):205-218.

Jones, G., S. Hanton, and D. Connaughton. 2007. A framework of mental toughness in the world’s best performers. The Sport Psychologist 21(2):243-264.

Krouse, R. Z., L. B. Ransdell, S. M. Lucas, and M. E. Pritchard. 2011. Motivation, goal orientation, coaching, and training habits of women ultrarunners. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 25(10):2835-2842

Levy, A. R., R. C. Pollman, P. J. Clough, D. C. Marchant, and K. Earle. 2006. Mental toughness as a determinant of beliefs, pain, and adherence in sport injury rehabilitation. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation 15(3):246-254.

Schumacher, J.2011.A phenomenological exploration of the experiences of channel swinmers. Retrieved from ProQuest Digital Dissertations and Theses. (AAT 1493255). Me