The marathon offers much more than amassed miles.

arathons attract a diverse set of runners with a variety of race motives. M Some choose to run in a marathon to improve health or perhaps for

social reasons. Some participate to try a new activity, to seek the feeling of camaraderie from training with a partner or group, or to seek the group accomplishment felt during the marathon race. Still others may seek the challenge of running 26.2 miles as well as the desire to race against others. The feeling of challenging other runners, a previous race time, or the marathon course can be motivators for many runners, thus keeping them adherent to the marathon culture (for example, being regular marathon runners). Ogles and Masters (2003, 70-71) added additional motives for marathon running: “mood control, self-concept enhancement . . . psychological well-being . . . social status, etc.”

Because marathon runners are a diverse, individualistic group of athletes, understanding the factors that help and hinder their performance has been of interest to researchers. Of particular interest is understanding the relationship between mood states and achieving flow during a marathon race.

Flow

Flow, colloquially referred to as “being in the zone,” is a feel-good, intrinsically motivating state that ‘“‘when individuals are fully involved in an activity, they tend to find the activity enjoyable and intrinsically rewarding”’ (Csikszentmihalyi, Abuhamdeh, and Nakamura 2005, 602). Flow is often described as a “‘positive” and “motivating force” (Schiiler and Brunner 2009, 169) experienced during an activity. Such a cognitive state involves challenging, goal-directed behavior that

produces a feeling of full absorption within the given task and consists of the following nine dimensions (Jackson and Csikszentmihalyi 1999):

1. Challenge-skills balance: refers to the perceived matching of one’s skills to the current challenges in the event; for this balance to occur, both the skills and challenge must be relatively high.

2. Merging of action-awareness: refers to one’s actions and thoughts becoming merged with conscious awareness (of those actions), resulting in the action feeling effortless and automatic

3. Clear goals: refers to athletes having set strategies, goals, or directions that provide a blueprint in monitoring their progress throughout performance

4. Feedback: refers to receiving information from various sources during competition in order to gauge performance

5. Concentration: refers to complete focus on the task or event

5. Loss of self-consciousness: refers to athletes not overanalyzing their performance

7. Sense of control: refers to athletes simply letting go of the need to control their actions; letting go allows the athletes to feel more in control as they are no longer overthinking their performance.

8. Transformation of time: refers to the feeling of time shifting; thus, athletes feel time may have moved more quickly or slowed down.

9. Autotelic experience: refers to the intrinsic reward and pleasure felt during a flow state

Anecdotally, athletes have reported experiencing flow and its components during competition. Because of the harmonious nature of flow, athletes search for the ideal training regimen, mental-skills strategy, and prerace (and during-race) routine to regulate emotional, cognitive, and/or physiological states before and during competition to enhance performance and the likelihood of experiencing flow. The concept of the “runner’s high” can be seen as an example of being in a flow state. Similarly, peak experiences are likely to be found when in a flow state, as well as peak performance. These are exalted feelings that are especially memorable for runners, given the potentially extended periods of time during a run when they might have these experiences, and the desire to experience these feelings again is strong.

Schiiler and Brunner (2009, 169) suggest that flow can directly and indirectly enhance performance as “this mechanism is based on the rewarding effect of the positive experience that accompanies the deep involvement during flow.” However, to achieve flow, we must consider the various internal and external factors that help and hinder athletic performance, such as weather, gear, physical

ability, negative or positive thoughts concerning the race, and performance, as well as mood states before and during competition. When considering the many factors that affect performance, particular attention should be paid to marathonrunners’ moods during a race. For example, runners may experience such moods as frustration, anger, happiness, and relaxation. Comparing their mood states to their experiences of flow and overall performance provides the sport of marathon running as well as the field of sport psychology with potential insights into the relationship that positive moods (such as happiness) and negative moods (such as frustration) have on flow and overall race performance.

Flow and mood

The connection between mood, flow, and performance operates on an individualistic and sport-specific level whereby moods can serve distinct purposes for the racer, ranging from motivational to assisting with mood regulation and arousal. For example, the mood of excitement may assist the runner in getting “amped up” for the race, whereas feeling annoyed during a marathon may motivate the runner to push through an obstacle.

Therefore, moods and emotions defined as negative (such as anger, frustration, and irritation) can facilitate flow and enhance performance just as much as positive mood states (such as happiness, joy, and excitement). However, mood states are very much relative to the individual, whereby the runner’s individual interpretation of the mood’s benefits on performance and flow is relative to the runner’s relationship with such moods.

To expand on this idea, comparisons can be made between the construction of emotions in team sports in relation to marathon running; in team sports, “there is a sharing of collective emotions” (Collins 2008, 285) which are felt in the ups and downs of a game. This sharing of emotions creates an emotional momentum that assists in enhancing individual and group performance through the positive emotions these points in the game elicit. Such “emotional energy” (Collins 2008) is similar to the ups and downs individually experienced during a marathon race whereby the racer’s individual challenges, areas of accomplishment and reloading, as well as the crowd energy (cheering and support from the crowd) elicit positive mood states for the runner, thus enhancing performance due to the motivational qualities such energy generates. Moreover, such emotional energy can facilitate flow as runners feel a sense of control and confidence during their race.

Because emotions and moods are natural, sport psychology research can explore how optimal levels of any emotion can assist in experiencing a flow state and enhancing performance. Sport-specific norms as well as the individual’s relationship with certain mood states are key factors in understanding mood’s role in attaining flow. Research exploring the interactions among flow, mood, and performance is currently under way at Temple University.

Study purpose

Leeja Carter and Michael Sachs are currently testing the role that mood states during a marathon have on achieving flow in marathon runners. Marathon runners were recruited through an announcement of the research study that was posted on running blogs and forums, such as active.com. Additionally, announcements were posted to club, university, and relevant organizations’ listservs. We also conducted a search of marathon running clubs in the United States via the website www.google.com. After identifying these clubs, we contacted them by e-mail and requested that they forward the study information to marathoners who might be interested in participating. Marathon runners who met the requirements of the study were asked to contact us by e-mail to participate in an online study, and we then provided a link to the online survey through surveymonkey.com.

Upon completion of the online consent form, participants were given a demographics survey that requested general information (including age, sex, and education) as well as their frequency of marathon participation, their level of expertise (first-time marathoner, seasoned, and so forth), and the date of their next race.

Next, participants took the Dispositional Flow Scale-2 (DFS-2) to measure their innate ability to achieve a flow state during competitive performance (Jackson 2009a). Then participants were asked to participate in their scheduled marathon race and, after completion of their race, were contacted within five days to complete the second part of the study.

The second portion of the study asked participants to take a demographics survey with general information about their most recent marathon race (date, location, and name of the event) and a modified version of the Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM) inventory to measure their mood states retrospectively for specific mile markers in the marathon (at the start, 13 miles, 20 miles, 25 miles, and the finish). Upon completion of the BAM, participants took the Flow States Scale (FSS-2) to measure their flow achievement within their most recent marathon retrospectively using nine subscales to assess the nine components of flow: challenge-skills balance, merging of action-awareness, clear goals, unambiguous feedback, concentration, sense of control, loss of self-consciousness, transformation of time, and autotelic experience (Jackson 2009b; Jackson and Marsh 1996).

Results

Demographics

Preliminary participant demographics are as follows: marathon runners above

was primarily Caucasian, with 20 participants identifying as Caucasian, three as

Hispanic or Latino, and one as Asian American. Five participants reported that their highest education or degree was a doctoral degree (such as PhD, EdD, and PsyD), eight had another graduate degree (MA, MEd, MS, for example), four had some graduate school, six had an undergraduate degree, and one had some college. Last, runners provided the total number of races and distances completed to date (they were asked to estimate, if necessary). The average number of races completed was 35.83 for the 5K, 12.59 for the 10K, 4.74 for 10 miles, 8.04 for the half-marathon, and 7.50 races for the full marathon (see figure 1).

Prior to running their marathon, participants completed a demographics survey and the DFS-2. Preliminary results found that, on average, all runners experienced a moderate to high level of flow as assessed by the flow-dimension scores. As represented in figure 2, runners’ dispositional flow-scale scores range between 3.5 and 4.4, which suggests moderate to high scores on the flow dimensions. Therefore, we concluded that participants possess the ability to achieve flow and, indeed, have achieved flow.

After participants ran their scheduled marathon race, they were asked to take the Flow States Scale (FSS-2) to measure their during-race levels of flow and flow dimensions. We modified the flow scale and tailored each question to ask participants about their flow experience at specific distances in the race (at 13.1 miles, 20 miles, and 25 miles). Results suggest that the flow dimensions of clear goals and feedback were least affected by distance completed in the marathon (see figure 3). Prerace goals may provide runners with the ability to stay fixed on set strategies in the race, allowing for clear goals to provide athletes with a set of tools or strategies to process their progress throughout the race regardless of other factors.

In addition to the nine dimensions of flow, runners’ overall flow experience (their total flow score) showed a steady decline across distance covered during

Number of Races Completed

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15.00 12.59 completed 10.00 8.04 7.50

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Figure 1: Runners reported number of races completed. Numbers represent race averages.

DFS-2: Dimension Scores

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Figure 2: Dispositional Flow Scale (DFS-2) dimension scores. Numbers represent runners’ average flow-dimension scores.

the marathon, indicating that as runners progressed throughout the marathon, their overall experience of flow decreased (see figure 4).

Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM) Scores and Analysis

Of the six mood states, the moods of confusion and anxiety were least influenced by distance in the race (see figure 5), with the moods of sadness, fatigue, and energy being the most affected by race distance.

The moods of sadness, energy, and fatigue show the most interaction with race distance, with the moods of fatigue and sadness low at the start of the marathon and progressively increasing across the distance of the marathon as the mood of energy decreases (see figure 6). Race distance affects a runner’s feeling of energy. Thus, as runners feel tired, they are more likely to feel the negative mood of sadness.

Conclusions for Study

According to the Brief Assessment of Mood inventory, the negative moods of sadness and fatigue showed a steady increase across race distance. More specifically, sadness showed a steady increase from race start to 20 miles, plateaued through 25 miles, and then slightly decreased at the finish (perhaps exhilaration at finishing the race). Runners’ energy levels (represented by reports of “energy” and “‘fatigue”’) may be closely associated with feelings of sadness during the race; the more energized and less tired runners feel during the race, the less likely they are to feel sad or depressed. Moreover, overall flow scores showed a clear decline across race distances (from 13.1 miles to 25 miles), suggesting a relationship between runners’ flow achievement, negative mood states (sadness), and distance in the race. Therefore, as runners progress throughout the race and increases in sadness and fatigue are apparent, flow states will probably decrease.

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35.00 7 flow scores per distance in the 33.0 33.00 4 marathon. Numbers represent 31.00 | mi Flow runners’ average 29.7 experience overall flow 29.00 | scores. 27.6 27.00 4 25.00 4

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Mean BAM Results Across Marathon Distance

4.00 3.00 — Anxious — Sad — Confused 2.00 — Angry — Energetic 1.00 — Fatigued 0.00

Start 13.1 20 25 Finish

Figure 5: Brief Assessment of Mood (BAM) inventory results per distance in the race. Numbers represent runners’ average BAM scores per race distances.

Preliminary findings suggest that the negative moods experienced as you progress throughout the race may reach their peak at specific race distances because that is where runners experience clear race challenges such as extreme fatigue, motivation, or a hill. Therefore, positive moods are first clearly affected. Mental skills like positive self-talk can minimize the encroaching negative moods and replenish the positive moods of energy and excitement to push runners through the race.

The applied side: enhancing mood and flow

Following up on these suggestions, we can recommend a number of strategies for facilitating a positive mood state during your training runs as well as races

Mean Levels of Sadness, Energy, and Fatigue

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Figure 6: BAM inventory results for sadness, energy, and fatigue, per distance in the race. Numbers represent runners’ average BAM scores per race distances.

(including marathons and ultramarathons). First, consider the general “‘mantra” that anytime we run is a good time; this positive focus on doing something we enjoy and that is good for us gets us started with a positive mind-set. Second, we can use a strategy that sport psychologists call “parking” or ““compartmentalizing”—we can park our negative mood states (before the run) in some side area (or put them in a compartment, like a box or drawer) and say that we won’t let this negative mood or these negative thoughts or problems distract us during our tun. We give ourselves permission to put them aside for the moment, and we can return to them later (unpark them, take them out of the box or drawer) if we wish. But our run is our “sacred” time, and we’ll leave the negative stuff behind for the moment.

Of course, some runners “enjoy” being in a “bad” mood, feeling that this drives them to push harder, in a cathartic sense, to run these negative moods out of their systems. Runners need to find what works best for them and use that to their advantage. Other strategies may work for runners. Books such as Galloway (2011), a recent one on mental training, may be of interest.

Recommendations for flow

On the flow side, we recommend considering the nine characteristics of flow that we noted earlier and check the degree to which you can facilitate these in your running. Most runners who are reading M&B already have a good idea of how to get into a flow state, experience the runner’s high (Sachs 1984), and have an exceptionally positive experience. One recent development within psychology in general and sport psychology in particular is something called “mindfulness.”

Mindfulness is about “paying attention in a particular way, on purpose, in the present moment” (Eiring and Hathaway 2010, 3). It is about being “present” and focusing on what is happening right here, right now, with you as you run. This not only takes your attention away from potential negative mood states noted above but also focuses on the joy of movement and running.

Using psychological skills techniques has been found to enhance performance as well as to promote positive psychological performance. Psychological skills techniques (PSTs) are a set of techniques that provide athletes with psychological tools to assist in enhancing performance (such as goal-setting, attention/concentration, arousal control, self-talk, and imagery). Marathon runners finding themselves with lower levels of certain flow dimensions can use various psychological skills as outlined below to help with achieving flow during their race.

Challenge-skills balance

To some degree, this requires selecting appropriate events (setting realistic goals) in which to participate. If you are not ready for the marathon distance, then undertaking one may be too much of a challenge. In addition, if you are ready to run but have a goal that is realistically most likely unattainable (say, three hours when your PR is 3:30 and your training hasn’t been that much different from before), this may also be too much of a challenge. But assuming that you are ready for the challenge, using positive self-talk where you are verbalizing positive affirmations (such as “I can do it” or “Goal” or “Push’’) about your performance during the race would curtail negative thoughts and enhance self-confidence.

Clear goals

Having clear goals during your marathon is essential to experiencing flow as well as positive moods related to performance. If you find that this dimension of flow is lacking, then work on goal-setting strategies before the race whereby you can strategize on specific points in the race to “run through,” relax, and hydrate. You can use other psychological skills, such as self-talk, to assist in your experience of flow. For example, one goal you may have is to be mindful of using positive self-talk at a specific point in the race due to a hill or obstacle or this just being a place where you feel you need to dig deeply.

Additionally, to further enhance your goal-setting skills, using imagery is recommended; imagery is mentally rehearsing a situation or event. Runners can use imagery before their races (and incorporate it into their training) to mentally rehearse various sections of their races where they intend to use their goal-setting strategies. For example, you may have the goal of using relaxation techniques during a specific point in the race (or perhaps right at the start), and using imagery to mentally rehearse running through the race and using your relaxation

techniques will give you the mental rehearsal and practice needed to successfully complete this goal.

Concentration

To experience a deeper level of focus while running, using one or more of the psychological skills has been found to promote concentration. For example, using such arousal-control techniques as relaxation, deep breathing, or self-talk can assist you in minimizing negative moods and distraction while promoting focus during the marathon. Using the strategy of parking or compartmentalizing mentioned earlier may be helpful as well. Although runners will not likely be distracted by trash talking from fellow runners or competitors or by distracting negative comments or signs from spectators, there is a considerable amount of time for runners’ minds to wander and, perhaps, attend to negative self-talk. Being able to concentrate on the task at hand (running smoothly, comfortably, enjoyably) is key.

Feedback

To enhance this dimension, use emotional, kinesthetic, and psychological cues to inform you about your performance. Ways to accomplish this are through, first, being cued in to your moods during the race, as the way we feel (our moods) informs us of our performance. Listening to our moods and emotions can allow us to make any necessary adjustments during our race. Second, utilizing the skill of goal-setting would benefit feedback as well as sense of control; by having clear goals as a product of goal-setting, you are aware of your progress through the race and the need for any adjustments.

Loss of self-consciousness

Overanalyzing performance distracts runners from being present in their activity; runners should use the psychological skills of self-talk, imagery, and arousal control as well as mindfulness to assist in minimizing self-consciousness during their races. Runners who find themselves overanalyzing their runs may feel distracted by these thoughts, with these thoughts getting “inside their head.” To assist, imagery training that works on specific issues that runners find distracting or worrisome—as well as mentally rehearsing during-race solutions when they feel nervous, are overanalyzing, or are distracted—can minimize feelings of selfconsciousness surrounding performance.

Using mindfulness and positive self-talk can also be very beneficial in minimizing self-consciousness, teaching runners to remain present in the moment (mindfulness) and focus on each step rather than on the outcome of the race (that is, time or a soon-to-come obstacle). Additional use of positive self-talk, such as “Focus” or “I can do it,” may be helpful as well.

Merging of action-awareness and transformation of time

Through utilizing the aforementioned psychological skills, these dimensions should occur organically as you engage your athletic experiences more fully.

Sense of control

While we like to think of ourselves as in control of many, most, or all situations, there are often times when we try too hard to maintain control, overthink our performance, or try too hard. Paradoxically, by letting go of this need for control, you may actually exert the control that you do have because of your training (physical and mental) in preparation for the race. Being mindful as you run can help facilitate this sense of control.

Autotelic experience

This dimension is simply enjoying your experience. Therefore, as you train for your marathon and run it, be sure to enjoy the moments. To optimize this dimension, find marathons that suit your interest, level of ability, and schedule. In addition, training with a friend or group may increase your level of enjoyment, allowing you to savor every new run.

We recommend trying some of these strategies and finding the ones that work best for you! May your runs always be positive and may you always flow.

References

Collins, R. 2008. Violence: A Micro-sociological Theory. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Csikszentmihalyi, M., S. Abuhamdeh, and J. Nakamura. 2005. “Flow.” In Handbook of Competence and Motivation, edited by A. J. Elliot and C. S. Dweck, 598-608. New York: Guilford.

Eiring, K. M., and C. M. Hathaway. 2010. Mindfulness and Sport Psychology for Athletes: Consider Awareness Your Most Important Mental Tool. Madison, WI: Innergy. Galloway, J. 2011. Mental Training for Runners: How to Stay Motivated. Maidenhead,

UK: Meyer & Meyer.

Jackson, S. 2009a. Short Dispositional Flow Scale. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden.

Jackson, S. 2009b. Short Flow State Scale. Menlo Park, CA: Mind Garden.

Jackson, S.,and M. Csikszentmihalyi. 1999. Flow in Sports. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Jackson, S. and H. Marsh. 1996. Development and validation of a scale to measure optimal experience: the flow state scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology 18(1):17-35.

Ogles, B. M., and K. S. Masters. 2003. A typology of marathon runners based on cluster analysis of motivations. Journal of Sport Behavior 26 (1):69-85.

Sachs, M. L. 1984. “The runner’s high.” In Running as Therapy: An Integrated Approach, edited by M. L. Sachs and G. W. Buffone, 273-287. Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press.

Schiiler, J., and S. Brunner. 2009. The rewarding effect of flow experience on performance in a marathon race. Psychology of Sport and Exercise 10(1):168-174. OO